BIO-CULTURAL COMMUNITY PROTOCOLS IN THE
CONTEXT OF PAYMENT FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
PART II / CHAPTER 6
ILCs often have unresolved and insecure land rights. If this
all stakeholders have a holistic understanding of how
fundamental issue is not addressed, PES schemes are likely
resources are used before the introduction of any PES
to only benefit large land owners who can influence the
schemes in order to avoid unintended consequences
way the land is used and thus qualify for a PES scheme,
such as depriving some members of the community of
which in turn may lead to further marginalisation of ILCs.
basic resources required for day-to-day survival;
PES schemes may also further undermine local communities
• As a result of PES schemes and associated land use changes,
by enabling more powerful actors to secure land tenure
ESS providers may suffer from loss of employment.
before ILCs can assert their rights based on customary law
PES schemes could also lead to the loss of control over and
26
or a history of use. Comparative studies between Mexico,
flexibility of local development policies, as they may limit
where ILCs have access to and control over 80% of forest
land management options in the medium- to
cover, and Brazil, where access to resources by local
long-term future. Those involved in PES schemes must
communities is much less secured, have highlighted the
consider and calculate other opportunity costs as
importance of affirming rights in making PES work for
well; and
27
local communities.
• Sometimes the provision of ESS can be inhibited by
unexpected natural events such as droughts, wildfires
IIED makes a similar observation based on their work on forest
or insect plagues. Communities have to ensure
ecosystems, warning that there is a risk of poor communities
that either they offer a large variety of ESS that make
being negatively affected by PES schemes. As the market for
them less vulnerable to times of “non-delivery”, or that
ESS raises the value of biodiversity-rich areas, it may lead to
the PES scheme addresses how to deal with the risk
competition for controls of these areas. If ILCs living in the
of unforeseen circumstances beyond communities’
area have no formal title to them, they are at risk of expulsion.
control; and In some ILCs, the commodification of ESS
In this sense, instead of empowering local communities, PES
through financial valuation may be culturally unacceptable.
can actually lead to their further marginalization.
28
This may particularly be the case if a PES scheme leads
to changes in land use that conflict with traditional
However, the opposite can also occur. A Danish Institute for
resource use. Thus there is a need to examine the
International Studies report found examples of how PES
compatibility of PES schemes with the bio-cultural
schemes have actually helped clarify communities’ land use
values of communities.
rights. As a result of community participation in the
maintenance or strengthening of ESS through ecosystem
m a n a g e m e n t , c o m m u n i t i e s’ l a n d t e n u r e w a s
actually strengthened.
29
4.6 Preventing Perverse Outcomes
In addition to the above challenges implicit in PES schemes,
there are concerns about the possibility of certain unintended
consequences, including the following:
• PES schemes may prevent ESS providers from harvesting
certain products or benefiting from certain ESS that are
essential for the ILCs’ livelihoods. Before entering into a
PES deal, consultations need to be held to ensure that
26. “Payment for Environmental Services and Rural Communities: Lessons from the Americas” Herman Rosa, Susan Kandel, Leopoldo Dimas and Ernesto Mendez,
PRISMA (Programa Salvadoreño de Investigación sobre Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente)
27. Ibid.
28. Supra note 24.
29. Supra note 7.
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